Délio de MENDONCA

Reading Indian Pluralism : A Paradigm for multi-cultural \ religious Development

Recalling the 450th anniversary of the death of St. Francis Xavier opens a debate \ dialogue between some outstanding old issues and ideals that Xavier himself and his times stood for and represented, and our present concerns.

Very few are as much influential as controversial in a variety of Asian cultures as Francis Xavier today. He was severe in his criticism of cultural pluralism, especially Indian, indeed even more than many of his unholy contemporaries.

Today's integrated world economy and market calls for a different sort of culture, vision and readings unforeseen a decade ago. India, as well as Asia in general, is ‘plural', not just ‘many'. Although many cultures, many religions, many races it is plural. Pluralism is not just tolerance, although very often pluralism is reduced just to that.

Goa, like Macau, a tiny former Portuguese colony from where I come, is a place where pluralism has taken deep roots. Cultural fusion in Goa and its communal interaction, a historical process although not achieved in a most spontaneous manner, sets an example for entire India. One should not forget that Xavier was laid to rest in Goa, and the shrine has become a meeting point for thousands of people of all faith and cultures – truly an encounter of religions and cultures and faith inspiring.

The principal purpose of this paper is a search for, and construction of a valid common code for cross-religious and cultural dialogue for advancement. Saints, poets and philosophers have attempted to ‘speak' a universal language.

Reading the main widespread forces shaping society and mindsets today - globalisation and fundamentalism - from the perspective of pluralism is being attempted here. It includes a brief historical reading of the discoveries, missionary enterprise, Christendom, etc.

Finally, this paper proposes the Indian (Asian) pluralism as a paradigm - based on cross or multi-cultural code \ language - for dialogue between the oriental and the occidental minds.

Soon Mi HONG-SHUNKA

The Korean World Map in St. Ottilien: A Note on Verbiest's Cartographical Work

An unusual old world map was found incidentally on the author's trip to the Museum of Benedictine Monastery in St. Ottilien near Munich last year. This huge, black and white woodblock print carries the title Konyô chôndo ( Kunyu quantu in Chinese, Complete Map of the Earth) and is approximately 150 cm. high and 385 cm. wide. In the literature on Jesuit cartography Konyô chôndo is known as the work of Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688), a Jesuit missionary from Belgium, who continued the new Jesuit cartographic tradition in China initiated by Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) and Giulio Aleni (1582-1649) amongst others. But Verbiest's map shows an important technical innovation: unlike his predecessors, he presents the earth in two hemispheres.

In my paper I will look at the Korean reception of Jesuit cartography as a historical example of cultural encounter between the East and the West. In doing so, my focus will not be to describe how apparently ‘more scientific' European cartography with its strong basis on modern mathematics, geography and astronomy had changed or replaced native mapping practices in Korea. Instead, my target is aimed at the opposite direction. That is, I am more interested in finding out the reasons why the European cartography, more advanced both in theory and technique, did not find resonance in the Korean context.

The paper begins with the St. Ottilien map, identifying it as a Korean reprint of the Verbiest's Konyô chôndo published in 1674 in Peking for the first time. Also, I will locate several additional copies in Korea and Europe which had been unknown until now. Then, I will provide major historical circumstances which suggests that contrary to the usual assumption, Konyô chôndo must have been introduced to Korea much earlier than 1721. I continue, then, to look how those early Jesuit maps including that of Verbiest's, were received in Korea, by the map makers and by the progressively minded Sirhak (Practical Learning School) scholars. Finally, in order to explain the “lack of reception”, I shall examine political and socio-cultural contexts in and around Korea, under which the early East-West encounter in cartography took place. In order to judge degree of comprehension, texts of the four Sirhak scholars, Yi Sugwang (1563-1628), Yi Ik (1681-1763), An Chôngbok (1712-1791), Hong Taeyong (1731-1783), related to the theme of the Western geography, mathematics and astronomy are analyzed as well.

Jose KALAPURA

Missionaries and Globalization of Culture: An Indian Experience

Studies on Portuguese colonization in Asia have proliferated in recent times. However, studies of its impact from the perspective of the colonized peoples are few. Further, within the larger experience of Portuguese colonization in the East, is the experience of globalization of culture among the ancient Christian communities in India as well as among those Christian communities which emerged as a consequence of Portuguese missionary effort under the Padroado system. While most studies on culture-contact between the East and West have focussed on the universalisation of Christian culture after the Western pattern, few studies have attempted to see the process of Western or Portuguese cultural domination and its imposition on the subject Christian communities.

While greater awareness of the phenomenon of globalization and its articulation are of recent origin, one can trace the functioning of this phenomenon all through world history. It may be noted that the Portuguese agenda in the East was mainly political and economic domination but included evangelization. The Portuguese project of evangelization of the East under royal patronage was characterized by globalization of culture, which implied imposition of Portuguese culture among convert communities on the one hand, and undermining of the indigenous culture, on the other, which policy resulted in not so cordial relationship between the East and the West.

A telling example of such a confrontational culture-contact is the case of the Malabar Christians in south west India. The Malabar Christians trace their origin to the missionary work of Apostle St. Thomas (hence also called St. Thomas Christians) and had been strongly entrenched and rooted in the Hindu or Indian culture while being ecclesiastically united to the Oriental Churches. This Christian community, with a membership of over 100,000 in the mid-sixteenth century, was brought under the jurisdiction of the Padroado by the Portuguese missionaries.

This paper focuses on the Portuguese missionary project, not merely confrontational, but also divisive, over the Malabar Christians, who strenuously defended their autonomy and culture . The meeting of the Western missionaries with the indigenous Christians of Malabar not only resulted in the partial Westernization of the latter, but also provoked a revolution in the mid-17 th century. The end result of the confrontation, which began from the early 1530s and continued till late 19 th century, was the breaking up of the Church of St. Thomas into Catholic and Orthodox and further, into several Churches. This study analyses the process of culture-contact between the Portuguese missionaries headed by the Jesuits from the mid-16 th century to mid-18 th century.

Related to this study on the Portuguese missionary-supported globalization and its cultural imposition are: 1) the bitter impact of the infamous Inquisition on the newly converted Christian communities of India and 2) the hostile relationship which expressed itself in open physical clashes between the Church communities under the two ecclesiastical systems, namely the Padroado and the Propaganda Fide.

Studies related to the colonial underpinnings of the Portuguese missionary project have largely drawn upon Portuguese language and other European sources. This study shall avail some of these sources but draw more from the abundant sources in Indian languages, which have not been adequately perused. Besides, the latter type of sources may throw more light on the perspective of the victimized communities.

The paper is divided into several parts: introductory section on Portuguese colonial-missionary activity, the lead given by the Jesuits beginning with St. Francis Xavier, data on the indigenous Christian communities of the period, the process of conflict, the impact of conflicts, analysis of the experience of aggressive culture-contact and the lessons for our contemporary contexts.

Barney KOO

The Malaccan Portuguese community and its relevance to contemporary Macau

When Saint Francis Xavier ventured to Japan and China in the mid-sixteenth century, he came via Malacca. His journey was made possible by Portuguese traders and adventurers who had previously traversed the eastern extremities of the Estado da India . During that period, Macau had not been officially settled by Westerners and Malacca was the primary link for journeys farther east. Malacca had become the administrative centre for missions in the Far East and for Francis Xavier, an intimate connection existed because part of his skeletal remains was entombed there for a time before being repatriated to India.

Even before the Portuguese wrest control of Malacca, it was already an important mercantile centre where traders from the region gathered to buy and sell. From Malacca, many Portuguese traders ventured to China and Japan; some settled illicitly to take advantage of the burgeoning trade. Until the demise of the Portuguese Empire and the subsequent decline of Portuguese shipping, Malacca remained a crucial link between Macau and Europe — a compulsory port of call.

In view of Malacca's strategic importance, it is not surprising to discover that extensive links existed between the two Portuguese settlements. The fall of Malacca to the Dutch in 1640 represented a severe blow to both communities. As a result, Macau's trade route to India and Europe was threatened while concerns were raised for the survival of the Portuguese community in Malacca. They suffered economic dislocation and, for a time, religious persecution. Against the odds, they survived and continue to do so having endured various regimes namely the Dutch, British, Japanese and Malaysian.

In their struggle for survival, the Malaccan Portuguese experience provides insights that have relevance for the Macanese in contemporary Macau even though centuries have lapsed since the departure of the Portuguese. Their distinctiveness and strong adherence to cultural practices, in particular their strong Catholic beliefs marked them but also provided a social adhesive and strength much needed in trying times. Their adaptability to new situations and their willingness to live in harmony with other races eased the pain of being marginalized. Led by dedicated leaders and shepherded by courageous clergy, the community was able to withstand external pressures that sought to decimate their ranks. By embracing other marginalized outsiders, their "inclusivity" added to the strength and profile of the community. As other regional centres such as Singapore gained prominence, their propensity to emigrate in search of a better world extended the reach of their community, transforming it in various ways. When Malayan nationalism took concrete form, they identified with the new nation state. Later they sought and were accorded access to certain privileges reserved solely for the indigenous population. For the Macanese community in contemporary Macau, these insights from Malacca have relevance and may provide inspiration in facing the challenge and opportunities of the new millennium.

Jean-Paul WIEST

The Building of the Cathedral of Canton: Political, Cultural and Religious Clashes

The paper traces events surrounding the construction of the Roman Catholic cathedral in Canton between 1860 to 1890. This neo-Gothic granite structure designed by a French architect is an amazing feat of workmanship by Chinese craftsmen with little knowledge of this type of construction. These workers had also to bear the brunt of the local population's displeasure. Indeed, far from bringing Western missionaries and the people of Canton to some understanding and respect for each other, the building deepened the mistrust and became the focus of bitter disputes and clashes.

The uncompromising attitude and political maneuvering of Bishop Guillemin in the pursuit of his dream of a magnificent Gothic cathedral did nothing to alleviate Chinese suspicion of missionaries' collusion with Western expansionist plans. He repeatedly disregarded local fengshu i and used French political and military might to his advantage in claiming a site for his new church. His pick was as much a political as a religious statement. Indeed, the location he set sight upon was the grounds of the governor-general palace destroyed in December 1857 by Anglo-French forces. In 1879, the bishop's obsession with church constructions in his vicariate was to an extent responsible for his recall to Europe by Rome. Guillemin's immediate successors were unable to defuse the population's resentment against missionaries, the converts, and the cathedral.

On the Chinese side, the governor and governor-general vacillated between orders from Beijing to accommodate missionaries and demands from the local gentry for punitive actions against these same foreigners. This anti-foreign local elite played a crucial role in venting the population anger against the cathedral as the most obvious and prominent symbol of foreign impingement in the city. In 1880, an angry mob threatened the unfinished building and destroyed Christian housing. The onset of the conflict with France over Annam further increased the tension and led to a widespread persecution of Christians in the province. To prevent another riot in Canton, the governor-general ordered missionaries to leave and confiscated the property of the cathedral. The situation did not quiet down until the end of the Sino-French war in June 1885.

In today Canton, missionaries are gone, anti-foreignism is at an all-time low, and Catholicism is striving. The resentment against the cathedral, known by the population as the Stone House ( shishi ), has disappeared. In a strange twist of history, the present provincial government has declared the building a valued cultural monument. At long last, instead of being a divisive symbol in the city skyline, the Canton cathedral has become a peaceful testimony of a common heritage proudly treasured by East and West.

David A. PALMER

The body at the junction of religion and scientism: modernization of meditative traditions in contemporary China

The body has long been a focal centre of Chinese religiosity. Breathing, meditative gymnastic and medical arts have always been among the key practices of Daoism, Buddhism, and popular religion in China. Owing to the practical dimension of these techniques, there has been a tendency, both in China and the West, to adapt them to a modern, secular, individualist lifestyle. The body becomes the locus for a new understanding of religious traditions, one which seeks to be compatible with a scientific worldview, and to reconcile the contradictions between tradition and modernity. The paper will explore the changes in the form, social transmission, and concepts associated with Chinese body arts in the past century, in the context of the overall evolution of Chinese culture.

Elisabeth ALLES

Islam's adaptation in China : present realities

Since the 80's years, as the others religious movements in China, Islamic communities have reorganized their activities. Old mosques are rebuilt in the traditional Chinese style, but the new ones distinguish themselves by a new Middle-East Islamic style. The latest meant to show the foreign origin of Islam and act as a reminder to the Chinese Muslims (Hui) to do their religious' duty.

The relationships with the Umma (“community of believers “) are also increasing : each year, an official number of more than two thousand believers go to the haj pilgrimage in Mecca. During the last decade, many students went to further their religious studies in Islamic Universities in Egypt, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria.

In China, there is an important multiplication of collective or private initiatives, especially in the field of education with the opening of Islamic schools, as well as in the area of publication (local journals, reviews etc.).

This paper will present the recent developments of Islam in China. It will examine the emerging trends and show how the Chinese Muslims (Hui) live nowadays the traditional “juxtaposition” between their Chinese and Islamic cultures.

Beatrice LEUNG Kit-Fun

Chinese Religious Women in Globalization Era: their problems and contributions

Social scientists have argued that in the long history of the Roman Catholic Church, religious orders have been the principal voice of the most radical movements within the Church. Religious orders have served as revival movements within the Church as well as the source of creative adaptations to new societal and religious circumstances. As the channels for experimentation and adaptation and the most effective avenues for ongoing revival in the Church, religious orders not only account for the long-term vitality of the Catholic Church, but they also help explain why the Catholic Church is more effective as a monopoly church than the Protestant Church.

This article aims at exploring the contributions of Chinese religious women in Deng – Jiang era through the examination of their modus vivendi and problems they are facing within and outside the church structure. In the course of discussion we firstly highlights the degree of revival of religious life among this special cohort of Catholics closely associated with the degree of development of the institutional norm among themselves . Secondly the sisters have their indispensable contribution in the revival of Catholicism in China and in the struggle between religious idealism and the Marxist-Leninist dialectic materialism of the Communist Party as well as the economic materialism under Deng Xiaoping.

Liu Ping

Christian missions, modern Chinese intellectuals and the crisis of modernity

At the end of the Ch'ing Dynasty, the course of modernization of China, both before and after the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), prominently manifested itself, from the level of the ideological system on, as quite incisive; it rectified the irreversible weakness of the society. Although newly emerged Chinese intellectuals (Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao) had received heavy blows in the power transition process of the whole society, due nevertheless to their dual-role of literati and officials of the traditional imperial court and of modern, intellectual men of letters, they have attempted, as bearers of social values, to eliminate the differences and contradictions between the two. Western missionaries, being bearers of social values, have generally speaking shared with Kang and Liang the same value orientation during the Hundred Days of the Reform Movement, in such a way that the influence of the former on the latter ha s been decisively undeletable. Among others, the most important influences were embodied in the following: in assuming to be creators and disseminators of new social values and concepts; by drifting away from the system of imperial examinations, yet by following scholastic methods, in educating representatives and practitioners of a new sense of value; by way of a new revolutionary organization, in establishing the core of a social elite. But the differences between the two have also been fatal: Kang and Liang, when rethinking and criticizing tradition, had not found for the tradition any new resting point; when assimilating some theological concepts of Christianity, they headed, as if it were mechanically, for a dead alley, that is: to consider Confucian culture as a religion; Kang and Liang did not forsake the relation to imperial authority, in reality they were aiming at using a top to bottom method to instill and implement a reformist way of thinking ; but as soon as the imperial authority had become a kind of decor, this very point had lead them on a suicidal road.